Browse by sub-sector
Open all 696 in the libraryHealth Systems Strengthening
Health financing, governance, workforce, supply chains, and routine information systems such as HMIS and DHIS2.
Output
Outcome
Disease Prevention & Control
Surveillance, outbreak response, vector control, and prevention programming for communicable and noncommunicable disease.
Output
Goal
Maternal & Child Health
Antenatal and postnatal care, skilled birth attendance, child health services, and growth and development monitoring.
Output
Goal
Sexual & Reproductive Health
Family planning, contraceptive services, reproductive health care, and related counseling and commodity supply.
Output
Goal
Primary Healthcare
First-contact services at health posts and centers, including outpatient care, referrals, and community health outreach.
Output
Goal
TB & Malaria
Tuberculosis and malaria case detection, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, including vector control and drug supply.
Output
Outcome
HIV/AIDS
HIV testing, prevention, treatment, viral load monitoring, and care along the clinical cascade.
Output
Goal
Mental Health & Psychosocial Support
Mental health services, psychosocial support, community-based care, and integration into primary care.
Output
Goal
Immunization
Routine and campaign vaccination, cold chain and supply, coverage, and dropout between scheduled doses.
Output
Outcome
Other Health sub-sectors
Smaller measurement areas in Health, with a sample indicator from each.
Methods by outcome type
Match the method to the outcome, not to what is easiest to collect.
| Outcome type | Primary method | Observation | Key instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Service coverage | Population-based household survey | Not required (recall and card verification) | DHS, MICS, PMA |
| Health status & outcomes | Biomarker measurement or clinical assessment in survey | Direct measurement required | DHS biomarker modules, anthropometry per WHO Child Growth Standards |
| Behavior | Structured questionnaire, observation where feasible | Observation preferred for clinical practice; recall common for use | DHS and MICS behavior modules, SPA observation checklists |
| Knowledge | Structured questionnaire | Not required | DHS and MICS knowledge batteries |
| System performance & service quality | Health facility assessment + routine information system | Facility inventory and observation required | SPA, SARA, WHO Health Facility Surveys, HMIS/DHIS2, LQAS |
| Mortality | Vital registration or survey-based estimation | Not directly observable; estimated | Civil registration and vital statistics, DHS sibling and birth history modules |
Common evaluation questions
The questions that anchor design and data-collection decisions, grouped by cluster.
Health Systems Strengthening
Did information-system strengthening result in more complete and timely routine reporting?
Evidence: HMIS/DHIS2 data quality reviews comparing reporting completeness and timeliness over time. Design: Implementation evaluation, before-and-after.
Are strengthened facilities maintaining service readiness after support ends?
Evidence: Repeat facility assessment (SARA or SPA) at program end and a follow-up point. Design: Sustainability / ex-post evaluation.
Disease Prevention & Control
Did the program improve case detection for the targeted condition?
Evidence: Routine surveillance and HMIS case data triangulated with facility assessment. Design: Outcome evaluation.
Was the prevention strategy implemented with the intended coverage and fidelity?
Evidence: Coverage surveys plus program monitoring against the protocol. Design: Implementation evaluation.
Maternal & Child Health
Did the program change skilled birth attendance and antenatal care coverage?
Evidence: Population-based household survey (DHS or MICS wording) at baseline and endline. Design: Outcome evaluation, before-and-after.
Is care quality, not just contact, adequate at supported facilities?
Evidence: Facility assessment (SPA) with observation of antenatal and delivery care against standards. Design: Implementation evaluation.
Sexual & Reproductive Health
Did the program change modern contraceptive use among the target population?
Evidence: Household survey using DHS or PMA family planning modules at baseline and endline. Design: Outcome evaluation.
Are contraceptive commodities consistently available at service points?
Evidence: Facility assessment of stock and HMIS/DHIS2 logistics data over time. Design: Implementation evaluation.
Primary Healthcare
Did service availability and readiness improve at supported primary care sites?
Evidence: Facility assessment (SARA or SPA) at baseline and endline. Design: Outcome evaluation, before-and-after.
Are community health worker services reaching the intended catchment population?
Evidence: Routine community reporting triangulated with a small-area coverage survey (LQAS). Design: Implementation evaluation.
TB & Malaria
Did the program achieve the targeted treatment success rate?
Evidence: Program cohort data reported through HMIS/DHIS2 against WHO case definitions. Design: Outcome evaluation.
Was diagnostic and treatment coverage delivered as planned across sites?
Evidence: Routine program data and facility assessment against the reporting framework. Design: Implementation evaluation.
HIV/AIDS
Did the program move clients along the testing, treatment, and viral suppression cascade?
Evidence: Program cascade data reported through PEPFAR MER or Global Fund indicators. Design: Outcome evaluation.
Are clients retained in care over time?
Evidence: Routine cohort retention data with follow-up at standard intervals. Design: Sustainability study.
The standards that matter
Health has a deep but layered standards ecosystem. Start with the WHO 100 Core Indicators for definitions, use DHS or MICS wording for population coverage, use SPA or SARA for facility readiness and quality, and align routine data to HMIS/DHIS2 and the relevant reporting framework (PEPFAR MER, Global Fund, Gavi) so your numbers reconcile with national and donor reporting.
WHO Global Reference List of 100 Core Health Indicators ↗
WHO reference set of core indicators and definitions used to align national and program reporting.
DHS Program ↗
Standardized population-based household surveys and validated question modules for health coverage and status.
UNICEF MICS ↗
Household surveys with health modules comparable to national datasets.
WHO SPA / SARA ↗
Health facility assessments measuring service availability, readiness, and quality of care.
DHIS2 ↗
Open-source routine health information system platform underlying many national HMIS.
PEPFAR MER ↗
Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting indicator standards for HIV programs.
The Global Fund ↗
Modular indicator framework for HIV, TB, and malaria grant reporting.
Gavi ↗
Immunization program indicators and coverage measurement guidance.
IHME / Global Burden of Disease ↗
Modeled estimates of disease burden, risk, and health status for impact-level context.
Common mistakes to avoid
Reporting coverage without naming the data source
Facility-derived coverage and population-survey coverage answer different questions. WHO indicator metadata expects the numerator, denominator, and source to be specified.
Using non-standard indicator wording
Reworded coverage indicators break comparability with DHS, MICS, and national datasets. Use the WHO 100 Core Indicators or DHS and MICS definitions verbatim.
Treating service contact as quality of care
Counting visits departs from SPA and SARA guidance, which assess readiness and observed quality, not contact alone.
Relying on routine HMIS without a data quality review
HMIS/DHIS2 figures need a completeness and consistency check before use, per WHO data quality review guidance.
Mixing facility denominators with population denominators
Facility caseloads and catchment populations are not interchangeable denominators. Define which one each indicator uses up front.
Collecting sensitive health data without disclosure and privacy protocols
HIV, mental health, and SRH data require consent, confidentiality, and disclosure procedures consistent with WHO ethics guidance, not an afterthought.
Frequently asked questions
What coverage indicator should I use for a donor proposal?
Use the WHO 100 Core Indicators definitions, or DHS and MICS wording where the program reports population coverage, rather than custom phrasing. For HIV, TB, and malaria, align to PEPFAR MER or Global Fund indicators. State the numerator, denominator, and data source so reviewers can reconcile your figures with national reporting.
When should I measure coverage from facility data versus a population survey?
Facility data (HMIS/DHIS2) measures service volume and is good for routine monitoring of supported sites. Population surveys (DHS, MICS, PMA) measure coverage in the catchment population, including people who never reach a facility. They answer different questions. If you need a coverage rate for a defined population, a survey denominator is usually required; routine facility data alone cannot supply it.
Can I report service contacts as evidence of quality of care?
No. Contact is an output. Quality requires facility assessment with observation against standards, using tools like SPA or SARA. A high visit count says nothing about whether the care met clinical guidelines. Measure readiness and observed practice separately from utilization.
How do I handle ethics for sensitive health data such as HIV, mental health, or SRH?
Treat consent, confidentiality, and disclosure as design requirements. Follow WHO ethics guidance: obtain informed consent (and appropriate consent procedures for minors), secure sensitive data, separate identifiers from responses, and define disclosure protocols before collection. For violence-related data, follow the WHO ethical and safety recommendations specific to that topic.
Should I rely on routine HMIS or commission a survey?
Use both for what each does well. Routine HMIS/DHIS2 is continuous, cheap, and good for trends at supported sites, but needs a data quality review for completeness and consistency before use. Surveys (DHS, MICS, PMA) give population-representative coverage and status at points in time. Many health M&E plans monitor routinely through HMIS and benchmark periodically against survey data.